*A threatening storm is brewing on the religious horizon: the winds of
occultism are blowing ever more strongly across the land. In the past two
to three decades, America and much of Western Europe have seen a
resurgence of paganism and witchcraft. Paganism is attempting a
resurrection from the dead, a revival of the old gods and goddesses of
pre-Christian polytheistic nature religions and mystery cults (e.g.,
Celtic, Norse, Greek, Egyptian, Roman, and other traditions of the Western
world).
Additionally, Sumerian mythologies, extant tribal
religions (e.g., Native American religions and shamanism), new religions
largely inspired by science fiction and fantasy, and amalgamations of
diverse occultic traditions join the list as well. Astaroth, Diana,
Hecate, Cernunnos, Osiris, Pan, and others are being invoked anew, feeding
an intoxicating discovery of and journey into a universe inhabited with
gods and goddesses.*
*Glossary of Key Terms*
*Divination:* The attempt to obtain information regarding the past,
present, or future through occultic methods, such as astrology,
channeling, crystal balls, tarot cards, and so forth.
*Magic:* The ability, real or imagined, to cause changes to result in
conformity with one's will or desires by invoking or utilizing mysterious
and/or invisible forces, and thereby influencing, controlling, or
manipulating reality for one's own purposes. _Magic_ is synonymous with
_sorcery,_ and, as used here, is to be distinguished from mere
sleight-of-hand. In some occultic circles, it is frequently spelled
"magick" to distinguish it from sleight-of-hand.
*Coven:* Sometimes also referred to as _groves_ or _circles,_ a coven
is the basic social unit of witches who regularly meet in groups (as
opposed to solitary witches), numbering anywhere between 3 and 30, with 13
being the ideal.
*Metaphysics:* In the philosophical (not occultic) sense, metaphysics
pertains to questions of ultimate reality -- in both the sensible and
insensible realms. Such questions include: What actually exists? What is
its nature or essence? What is its origin?
*Occult:* From the Latin _occultus,_ meaning secret, hidden, or
esoteric knowledge and practices. It is comprised of three basic
categories -- divination, magic or sorcery, and spiritism. Though there
are many theories today as to how or why it works, according to biblical
theology it originates from, and constitutes interaction with, demonic
spirits. Hence, it is expressly condemned.
*Sex Magic:* The use of sex (e.g., intercourse -- actual or symbolic)
within a ritual or spell-casting session to facilitate or augment the
efficacy of a given magical rite. That is, sexual activities are used to
accomplish the desired goal of the occultist.
Although their practices and beliefs diverge significantly at points,
many of these individuals and groups proudly identify themselves as pagans
or neopagans. Among them can be found a diverse group of people who style
themselves as witches or wiccans: followers of the "Old Religion" of the
great Mother Goddess and her male consort, the Horned God.
*THE
PAGAN NEXT DOOR*
Many of today's witches want to remove their traditional cloaks of
secrecy, dispel the confusion that surrounds their religion, and address
the hostility and suspicion they perceive as directed toward themselves
and their craft. They desire that their views and practices be considered
an alternative religion, a viable world view. At the very least they seek
the right to follow their chosen path without being hindered, harmed, or
discriminated against.
*Pagan PR*
Indeed, with increasing vigor, witchcraft is coming "out of the broom
closet." Many witches are actively seeking public understanding and
acceptance, cultivating an image as the "pagan next door." After all, they
claim to embrace a life-affirming, family religion. From media materials
to books for children, such as _The Witch Next Door_ and _The Witch
Family_ (which portrays witchcraft in a positive family setting), the
campaign is on.[1] The cover of one book on witchcraft has an attractive
female witch dressed in a fashionable, well-tailored business suit -- as
if she were walking down Madison Avenue.[2] This is far removed from the
stereotypical image of witches as ugly old hags with warts on their noses,
decked out in black capes and cone-shaped hats, riding their favorite
broomstick on a moonlit night.
This two-part series is presented with a view to (1) understanding,
analyzing, and critiquing contemporary witchcraft, and (2) promoting
biblical and thoughtful evangelism of people involved in this religion. It
is not presented as a _complete_ treatment and refutation of witchcraft,
much less of the larger and more diverse neopagan movement. However, much
of what is said about witchcraft herein can also be said of the neopagan
movement as a whole. Likewise, the refutations applied to witchcraft
doctrines apply to neopaganism as well. (The differences between
witchcraft and the various other religions within neopaganism are
important, but not so significant as to negate most of the critique
presented here.)
The background information on modern and contemporary witchcraft that
will be found in this article is necessary because so few "outsiders"
understand what it is. This material should clear away many misconceptions
and help bring the issue into proper focus. We will not spend time on the
disputed ancient or medieval history ("herstory," as most witches like to
call it) of witchcraft, as this will not necessarily promote an accurate
understanding of _contemporary_ witchcraft. Besides, there are numerous
works available touching these concerns, and a world view's validity does
not depend on its longevity (this is the fallacy of _argumentem ad
antiquitum_); it depends on whether it is internally consistent and "fits
the facts."[3] After giving a brief history of modern witchcraft, we shall
proceed to examine its contemporary expression.
*WHICH IS
WITCH?*
It is extremely difficult to define with precision the beliefs and
practices of contemporary witches. This is because of the elasticity of
the terms "witch" and "witchcraft" as they have been applied to people and
practices both today and throughout history. It is also due to the great
diversity that exists within the contemporary movement itself. Witches
disagree among themselves as to what constitutes a witch.[4] Muddled
thinking, misunderstanding, and confusion have been the result of
Christians, witches, and others not adequately defining their terms. For
instance, it is not just believing in and practicing magic and divination
(the occult) that makes a person a witch. There are millions of people who
do this but are not witches. Contemporary witchcraft involves these
practices, yes, but others as well (e.g., the invocation and worship of
the Mother Goddess).
An oft-suggested definition for what constitutes a witch is, Anyone who
is involved in some form of the occult (e.g., palm or tarot card readers,
ritual magicians/sorcerers, Satanists, Voodoo practitioners -- everything
from alchemists to xylomancers and astral projection to visualization).
The primary reason for this is that the English words "witch" and
"witchcraft" are variously employed in the most commonly used English
translations of the Bible to designate different types of occultists and
occultic practices. However, in accord with the meaning of these words in
the original languages of Hebrew and Greek, and in light of the changing
definitions of these words throughout history, we shall use the terms
"witch" and "witchcraft" _only_ for the particular religiomagical belief
system delineated below. (This should in _no_ sense be seen as an
endorsement of other types of occultism, as they are equally condemned in
God's Word, the Bible.)
Witchcraft (also known as _wicca, the craft,_ or _the craft of the
wise_) is a generic term covering differing approaches to the subject. And
the terms for followers of witchcraft -- "witch" or "wiccan" -- apply to
both genders. The widely believed notion that a female is a "witch"
whereas a male practitioner is a "warlock" or "wizard" is a misnomer.
To help set the stage for our discussion of contemporary witchcraft, it
will be beneficial to take a brief tour of the modern history of this
fascinating phenomenon.
*ONCE UPON A TIME*
Many people contributed to the growth of modern witchcraft in Western
Europe and America, such as folklorist and occultist Charles G. Leland
(1824-1903) and novelist and occultist Robert Graves (1895-1985). As much
as we might like to discuss these interesting personalities and their part
in the forging of contemporary witchcraft, space compels us to limit our
consideration to a few key individuals.
*The Murray Myth*
The ideas of anthropologist, Egyptologist, and occult dabbler (and
perhaps witch[5]) Margaret Murray (1863-1963) were popularized in two of
her better-known works, _The Witch-Cult in Western Europe_ (1921) and _The
God of the Witches_ (1933). The latter eventually became a best seller in
England.
The "Murrayite theory" stated that witchcraft could be traced back to
pre-Christian times, having been preserved through the centuries by
witches. Not only does witchcraft predate Christianity, Murray affirmed,
it was once the ancient pagan religion of Western Europe.[6] It supposedly
survived in small scattered groups who practiced the "Old Religion." But
by this time it was fragmented due to persecution from the dominant
Western religion -- Christianity. Thus, the "Old Religion" was the
surviving pre-Christian religion of Western Europe, still practiced by the
faithful -- but only clandestinely.
The history of ancient witchcraft and witchcraft in the Middle Ages
(and Satanism for that matter) is a very convoluted and confused
subject.[7] Still, there is little doubt that small pockets of various
types of paganistic beliefs and practices persisted up through the
medieval period, particularly in rural regions. Thus, by way of local
familial agricultural/fertility traditions and superstitions, numerous
folks really were involved in forms of occultic beliefs and practices.[8]
However, these medieval remnants of pre-Christian paganism were not the
remains of an elaborate, matriarchal Mother Goddess mystery religion, as
many contemporary witches would have us believe. The Murrayite theory is
thus unsupported by the facts.[9]
Contemporary witchcraft is quite different from its medieval and
"enlightenment" period counterparts. That is, the agricultural/fertility
traditions that survived from ancient times through the Middle Ages and
into the early modern era are not the same as modern witchcraft, except
that they are both forms of the overarching category of occultism.
Nonetheless, Murray's views influenced many -- including one Gerald
Gardner, to whom we now turn our attention.
*The Gardnerian
Garden*
Gerald Gardner (1884-1964) almost single-handedly revived (invented)
and popularized witchcraft for the modern world. Based on his
associations, experiences, extensive occultic background, studies,
travels, and familiarity with magical texts (_grimories_) and Margaret
Murray's works, he "crafted" modern witchcraft.
Indeed, Gardner was a man with many occultic connections. He was a
member of Freemasonry, the Rosicrucians, and a VII degree initiate of the
Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O.). He was an acquaintance of Mabel
Besant-Scott (daughter of leading Theosophist Annie Besant) and of the
infamous Aleister Crowley.[10]
A British civil servant, Gardner spent much time in Ceylon (modern Sri
Lanka) and worked and traveled throughout India and Southeast Asia, as
well as visiting the Middle East. While in Ceylon he was initiated into
Freemasonry and became a nudist. An accomplished amateur anthropologist
and archaeologist, Gardner's interests gravitated toward the religions and
religious paraphernalia of native societies. He even wrote a book on
Malaysian ceremonial weaponry, and participated in an archaeological
excavation in Palestine of a center of worship of the goddess
Astaroth.[11]
Upon his retirement and return to England, Gardner became involved with
the Corona Fellowship of Rosicrucians, founded by Mabel Besant-Scott. Here
he contacted numerous occultists and allegedly some witches, including
Dorothy Clutterbuck ("Old Dorothy"), who supposedly initiated him into
witchcraft (the "Old Religion"). He revealed some secrets of the coven to
which he claimed to belong and its Mother Goddess in a novel entitled
_High Magic's Aid_ in 1949. This was written under a pseudonym (i.e., his
magical name, "Scire").
Gardner's _Witchcraft Today_ was published in 1954, after the
witchcraft laws in England were rescinded (in 1951). _The Meaning of
Witchcraft_ followed in 1959. In _Witchcraft Today_ Gardner further
unveiled his Goddess religion as he described the survival of this "old
pre-Christian religion" (Murray's theory) and his initiation into it.
In his writings Gardner drew upon his occultic experiences, travels,
the writings of Murray, the help of Aleister Crowley, and his knowledge of
Freemasonry, Rosicrucianism, Theosophy, Western ritual/sex magic, magical
texts (e.g., the _Greater Key of Solomon_), and various native Asian and
near Eastern religions and their occultic paraphernalia. Borrowing from
these and other sources, Gardner invented his own religion -- founding it
upon the Mother Goddess. To this witches' brew he added the doctrine of
reincarnation. Thus, rather than merely revealing and reviving an ancient
Goddess religion as he claimed, the resourceful Gardner actually _created_
modern witchcraft.[12]
Ironically, the purported purpose of _Witchcraft Today_ was to describe
an allegedly _dying_ Goddess religion. Instead, it _birthed_ one,
resulting in the rise of a generation of would-be witches who looked to
Gardner for initiation. A new form of "Goddess worship," modern witchcraft
(wicca) grew as people became familiar with and initiated into the
teachings and rites of this exotic faith. From this concoction sprang what
is now known as Gardnerian witchcraft, and with it all or nearly all of
the contemporary witchcraft movement.[13]
Among the early converts who fell under Gardner's spell and who became
influential in their own rights were Alex Sanders (d. 1988), Sybil Leek
(d. 1983), and Raymond and Rosemary Buckland.
*Witchcraft Goes
West*
Sybil Leek was greatly influenced by Gardnerian witchcraft, although
she modified his rituals and teachings. She brought these with her and
popularized them when she moved to the United States in the late
1960s.[14]
The persons primarily responsible for the introduction and growth of
modern witchcraft in America, however, were Raymond and Rosemary Buckland.
They traveled to England during the mid-1960s to be initiated into
Gardner's Goddess religion, and after obtaining their desire, brought
their religion back to America with them.
*THE CONTEMPORARY
CRAFT*
Stemming from the ideas and persons described above (and, of course,
other relevant persons and factors), witchcraft has proliferated into the
variegated expressions and traditions that comprise the contemporary
scene. It is a highly decentralized, eclectic, creative, mix and match
(use what exists or make your own as you go) movement. This is evidenced
by the numerous covens, associations, and types of witchcraft to which
individual covens belong: Algard, Alexandrian, the American Order of the
Brotherhood of Wicca, Church and School of Wicca, Church of Circle Wicca,
Covenant of the Goddess, Cymry Wicca, Dianic (feminist), Gardnerian,
Georgian, Seax-Wica, and the Witches International Craft Associates.[15]
Some of these covens are feminist, others lesbian or homosexually
oriented, and still others a mixture of males and females.
The major spokespersons for witchcraft today are even more diverse than
the types. Besides Raymond Buckland, predominant voices in the witchcraft
(and neopagan) world include Margot Adler, Jim Alan, Jessie Wicker Bell
(Lady Sheba), Zsuzsanna (or simply "Z") Budapest, Laurie Cabot, Scott
Cunningham, Selena Fox, Gavin and Yvonne Frost, Judy Kneitel (Lady Theos),
Leo Martello, Miriam Simos (Starhawk), and Doreen Valiente.
Aside from the various covens and solitary practitioners of witchcraft,
there are too many of the following to list individually: associations,
centers, festivals and gatherings, newsletters, magazines, journals,
books, bookstores, and shops. All of these are devoted to teaching,
defending, and networking the ideologies of witchcraft (and/or
neopaganism).[16]
For various reasons, it is difficult if not impossible to assign a
number to the witches in North America. "Ballpark" estimates on the
conservative side, however, would place the figure approximately between
5,000 and 10,000. More liberal estimates range between 30,000 and 50,000
for witches, and upwards of 70,000 to 80,000 for all neopagans. The actual
number is probably at the lower end of the conservative scale. But
witchcraft is growing at a steady pace, and unless something drastic
happens to reverse the spiritual climate in America and the trend toward
occultism, the witchcraft community will become an increasingly
significant minority -- a sobering possibility the church cannot afford to
ignore.
*PAGAN PRINCIPLES*
Witches do not view their religion as a reaction to or reversal of
Christianity, as is the case with much of Satanism.[17] Rather, they
prefer to see it as an independent tradition, an alternative religion or
faith -- like Hinduism or Taoism. Indeed, they see witchcraft as being
_pre_-Christian and not arising as a backlash to it. Witches view
themselves as fun-loving, life-celebrating and affirming folk who worship
the Mother Goddess (in all her many facets of revelation via creation) and
her consort, the Horned God.
Contemporary witchcraft is so diverse and eclectic (as we shall see
presently) that it is extremely difficult to accurately identify and
define. In fact, it is almost impossible to state that all witches believe
"this or that." No sooner will this be uttered then someone will speak up
and assert that they are a witch and "do _not_ believe what you just
stated." There are, however, commonalities shared by most who appropriate
the word "witch" for themselves. It is important to keep in mind that the
following tenets do not necessarily apply to _all_ witches, but on the
whole they are valuable _general_ guidelines for defining
witchcraft.
*The Creed of No Creed*
First among the beliefs of witchcraft is the "creed of experience."
_Experience_ is exalted dogmatically above, and often set in opposition
to, creeds or doctrines. In short, experience is superior to doctrine.
Aidan Kelly, who was formerly involved in neopaganism, noted: "What really
defines a witch is a type of _experience_ people go through. These
experiences depend on altered states of consciousness. The Craft is really
the Yoga of the West" (emphasis in original).[18] The witchcraft
experience is often expressed as a mystical experience, "that feeling of
ineffable oneness with all Life."[19] Witchcraft is therefore a religion
based first and foremost on the sense of being one and in harmony with all
life.
_Tolerance_ is another highly-touted value among witches. Diversity of
belief and practice is viewed as not only healthy but essential to the
survival of humanity and planet earth, and to spiritual growth and
maturation as well. Independence, autonomy, and the freedom to experience,
believe, think, and act as one desires are defended as if they were divine
rights. Witches _do_ become intolerant, however, when they perceive
intolerance and authoritarianism in other individuals and faiths (which
they would term "religious imperialism"). So we have statements like
number 10 of the Council of American Witches' "Principles of Wiccan
Belief": "Our only animosity toward Christianity, or towards any other
religion or philosophy-of-life, is to the extent that its institutions
have claimed to be 'the only way' and have sought to deny freedom to
others and to suppress other ways of religious practice and belief."
These beliefs stem from the notion that ultimately there is no right or
wrong religion or morality. Relativism in all areas of life, including
ethics and metaphysics, is the rule. Truth is what is true for you; right
what is right for you; but neither are necessarily so for me. The only
absolute is that there are no absolutes. Thus, all have the right to
believe and practice "what they will." In this context, one often hears
the story of the three blind men who have all grasped different parts of
an elephant (tusk, trunk, and tail), and, in describing it, each man
thinks he alone has the truth.
This view of life derives from an "open" metaphysical concept that
"reality is multiple and diverse."[20] There is no single logic or view
that is complete or adequate to handle the complexity and multiplicity of
reality. Therefore, we should not limit ourselves to the narrow purview of
one person or religion, but be "open" minded and tolerant of differing
views. This understanding of reality is closely associated with three key
concepts: animism, pantheism, and polytheism.
*World Alive: Three
Pillars of the Witches' World View*
_Animism_ is an important pillar of the witches' world. As used by
them, the word means that the "Life Force" is immanent within all
creation: rocks and trees, deserts and streams, mountains and valleys,
ponds and oceans, gardens and forests, fish and fowl; from amoeba to
humans and all things in between. All is infused with and participates in
the vital Life Force or energy, and therefore the _entire_ earth is a
living, breathing organism. All is sacred; all is to be cared for and
revered. The earth is a (or _the_) manifestation of the Goddess (and God).
"Sacredizing" the world and animating nature, witches view all reality as
a continuum of consciousness and being. Thus, they seek to live in harmony
and be psychically in tune with nature. (Incidentally, whatever else
witches may believe and do, because of these views they are _not_ involved
in animal or human sacrifices.)
For many witches, the second pillar of their world -- implicit in their
version of animism -- is _pantheism._ Not only is the Life Force pervasive
throughout our world, but all the world is divine. Divinity is inseparable
from, and immanent in, nature and humanity. Since most witches teach that
we are divine (or potentially so), it is clear why someone like Margot
Adler, a witch herself, approvingly quotes a particular neopagan group's
greeting to its female and male members respectively: "Thou art Goddess,"
"Thou art God."[21] Most are not this brash but nevertheless hold that we,
like nature, are divine.
The third pillar is _polytheism._ As defined by many witches, however,
polytheism is not _merely_ the belief in multiple deities -- a pantheon of
gods and goddesses -- but also the belief that there are multiple levels
of reality (i.e., the "open" metaphysics referred to earlier). According
to this view, there are an infinite (or at least incomprehensible) number
of levels of meaning and explanations about our world. These allow not
only a multitude of gods, goddesses, and religions to exist
simultaneously, but also views of reality that would otherwise appear to
be mutually exclusive; all are true as far as they go.[22] Hence, witches
can align themselves with a particular Goddess and/or God, or group
thereof, and still grant the validity of other "alternative"
religions.
*The Mother Goddess and the Horned God*
Most witches experience, believe in, invoke, or worship the Mother or
"triple Goddess" and her male consort, the Horned God. Both are believed
to be immanent deities accessible to humanity.
The Mother Goddess -- whose three primary roles are mother, maiden, and
crone -- is represented by and associated with the moon and its three
phases: waxing, full, and waning. She is invoked by a variety of names:
Aphrodite, Artemis, Astaroth, Astarte, Athene, Brigit, Ceres, Cerridwen,
Cybele, Diana, Demeter, Friga, Gaia, Hecate, Isis, Kali, Kore, Lilith,
Luna, Persephone, Venus, and more. She is believed to be eternal.
The Goddess's consort, the male Horned God, is associated with the sun.
According to most witches, he dies and is reborn every year. He too is
called and invoked by many names, including Adonis, Ammon-Ra, Apollo,
Baphomet, Cernunnos, Dionysius, Eros, Faunus, Hades, Horus, Nuit, Lucifer,
Odin, Osiris, Pan, Thor, and Woden.
Different witchcraft traditions and solitary practitioners diverge in
the importance they attach to the Mother Goddess and the Horned God. Some
emphasize the Goddess, some the Horned God, while many seek a balance
between the two.
*Differing Views of the Goddess(es) and God(s)*
How do witches themselves view and experience the Goddess(es) and
God(s)? Do they really believe they exist? As one might expect from an
eclectic religion that highly values autonomy, there are multiple views as
to who or what the Goddess and God are.[23] Be that as it may, there are
some commonalities. Let's look at the six primary views.
First (but not foremost) is the idea that the deities of witchcraft are
simply _symbols_: the personifications of universal principles, or of the
life forces and processes of our world (e.g., the ebb and flow of life as
seen in the seasonal changes), and nothing more. They are symbols used to
help conceptualize the cyclical pattern of birth, life, death, and birth
again.
Second, they are _Jungian archetypes_: universal symbols of processes
and events of nature _and_ of actual potentialities within all humans,
springing from the common pool of the "collective unconsciousness" from
which we all allegedly drink. Therefore, they exist in the sense that any
archetype exists. They are more than "just" symbols, but do not exist
externally to, or independently of, humanity.[24]
Third, they are _dissociative_ or _dislocative psychological states._
That is, they are a split or spin-off from a person's own psyche or being
(like a multiple personality state). They have a "life of their own" in
that sometimes they can seemingly manifest themselves outside of the
person: reason, talk, give advice, travel about, and so on. However, they
are dependent on a given person's psyche for their existence.
Fourth, and apparently the most predominant view, the Goddess and
Horned God and/or other gods and goddesses are _personifications_ of the
monistic, genderless, universal, and eternal _Life Force_ -- the divine
primal energy or principle. This source of all life and consciousness,
which in this life and mode of existence is unknowable and
incomprehensible, is personified by the Goddess and Horned God. They are
myths, legends, or metaphors that are used in an attempt to explain or
grasp the ineffable absolute One that is all, and gives life to all. This
ultimately indescribable Force is primarily manifested in polarities --
female and male, light and darkness, Goddess and God, and so forth. Scott
Cunningham tells us that "in wiccan thought the Goddess and the God are
the twin divine beings: balanced, equal expressions of the ultimate source
of all....They are dual reflections of the power behind the universe that
can never be truly separated."[25] Thus, according to this view, they can
be described either as personifications of the ultimate Life Force or
emanations from or manifestations of it, but they nonetheless can be
literal conscious entities. (That is, as literal as you or me.)
Fifth, _multiple combinations_ of the above views are often held,
depending on the individual's orientation. For example, some believe that
the above four views are all true at one time or another.
Sixth and lastly, we have the agnostic "who cares" view. That is, in
working magic or just in everyday life, invoking the Goddess and God
_seems to work._ Thus, because of pragmatic and aesthetic reasons, some
who are skeptical about (or even flatly deny) the Goddess's and God's
existence still practice witchcraft.[26]
In addition to these varying views of the Goddess and God, some witches
believe in good and bad extra-dimensional or intermediate beings,
including other goddesses and gods, higher life forms, spirit guides and
teachers, elemental spirits, and departed human beings who exist as
manifestations of the One and/or are individual literal entities in their
own right.
While some witches may be _skeptical_ about the existence of the
Goddess and God, they all _emphatically deny_ the existence of the Devil
and hell. Therefore, they vigorously reject the charge that they worship
the Devil, which many Satanists would admit to.
*MAGIC MAKES THE
WORLD GO ROUND*
Magic is another key component of the witches' world. The working of
magic and diverse techniques of divination are part-and-parcel of their
religion. Astrology, astral projection (out-of-body experiences),
incantations, mediumship (channeling), necromancy, raising psychic power,
(for many) sex magic, spell casting, trance states, and so forth, are all
tools of their craft. Indeed, "psychic" development (i.e., training for
proficiency in magic and divination) is a critical concern.[27]
Altered states of consciousness are another integral part of many
witchcraft practices and rituals; these are induced to facilitate the
working of magic and divination. Much of a witch's training is with a view
to enabling him or her to enter these states at will. This is done by
means of chanting, (for some) drugs, ecstatic dancing, hypnosis,
meditation, rituals, sex magic, visualization, or a combination of these
and a host of others.[28]
For many witches, trance states are the high point of their religious
practice. Especially important are the type termed "drawing down the moon
[Goddess]" or "drawing down" the Horned God. These involve the Goddess or
God entering or possessing a priestess or priest respectively during a
ritual with mediumistic utterances given or magic worked.[29]
As elsewhere in the kingdom of the occult, the old occult has been
given a new face-lift in witchcraft. The occultic realm is now described
as simply _beyond_-the-physical, but still a part of nature. Thus, Sybil
Leek is able to affirm: "I can see little difference in Magic and science,
except to have the opinion that Magic is one step ahead of science."[30]
Leo Martello says that as a witch he makes no claims to "supernatural
powers," but he does believe in _super_ powers that reside in the
natural.[31] Many witches share this view: divination and magic are not
"supernatural," but _supernormal_ or _paranormal,_ because the processes
by which they work are contained _within_ the nature of the universe. This
is as opposed to the view that occultism works through the intervention of
supernatural beings -- the Devil, demons, or spirits.[32] The current
sentiment is conveyed in the attitude that "yesterday's occultism is
today's science."
Moreover, witches maintain that magic is a "neutral" power. Like
electricity or a gun, it is not morally good or bad in itself. Its moral
quality depends on how or for what purpose it is used -- good or
evil.
*Working Magic*
Just as there are many explanations as to who or what the Goddess and
God are, so there are various views among witches as to how and why
divination and magic work. We'll survey the four most common.
First is the belief that the ability to work magic or perform
divination is due to latent psychic abilities or powers that we all have.
Some either have more of these natural gifts than others, or else they
have developed them to a greater degree. Others may not even realize they
have them. But they are nonetheless inherent within us all.[33]
The second view of magic appeals particularly to those who espouse the
fourth view about the Goddess and God mentioned above (i.e., the view that
the Goddess and God are _personifications_ of the monistic Life Force). It
holds that the working of magic is much like tapping into an electrical
current. The "current" is the monistic universal energy or Life Force.
Since this primal energy composes, interconnects, and flows through all
(though manifested in myriads of forms), one merely has to learn how to
"plug into" and harness some of this power for his or her own purposes.
Thus, it can be manipulated toward the desired goal of the witch.[34]
The third view is that divination and magic are accomplished by the
intervention of interdimensional entities such as gods and goddesses,
higher life forms, spirit guides, departed humans, and so forth. They can
be communicated with, and will supposedly aid us in our quest for
"spiritual" growth, knowledge, and all things occultic.[35]
Fourth, the above theories can be found in varying combinations, such
as one and three; one, two, and three; and so forth.
In the second and concluding part of this series, we will look further
at the beliefs of witches, including reincarnation, their view of sin, and
their ethic or "Wiccan Rede," "An it harm none, do what you will." A
critique of the witches' world view and practices -- on biblical,
metaphysical, logical, and ethical grounds -- will also be
presented.
*NOTES*
1 _See_ Raymond Buckland, _Buckland's
Complete Book of Witchcraft_ (St. Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1988),
210.
2 Scott Cunningham, _The Truth About Witchcraft Today_ (St.
Paul: Llewellyn Publications, 1988).
3 References concerning this
point are available on request.
4 _See,_ for example, Margot Adler,
_Drawing Down the Moon: Witches, Druids, Goddess-Worshippers, and Other
Pagans in America Today,_ rev. and expanded ed. (Boston: Beacon Press,
1986), 66-72, 99-107; J. Gordon Melton, "Witchcraft: An Inside View,"
_Christianity Today,_ 21 Oct. 1983, 24; and Marcello Truzzi, "Towards a
Sociology of the Occult: Notes on Modern Witchcraft," in _Religious
Movements in Contemporary America,_ ed. by Irving Zaretsky and Mark P.
Leone (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974), 633-45.
5
Alleged by Leo Martello in _Witchcraft: The Old Religion_ (Secaucus:
Citadel Press, n.d.), 59.
6 Actually, she was not the first to
formulate and advance this thesis, but her views had the most
impact.
7 For information on the background and development of
witchcraft and Satanism, see J. Gordon Melton, _Encyclopedia of American
Religions,_ 3d ed. (Detroit: Gale Research Inc., 1989), 142-47. Though we
do not endorse all of his conclusions, he provides valuable background and
bibliographical material.
8_Ibid.,_ 142.
9 _See_ Adler,
45-56, for a refutation of, and specific information on, Murray's theory;
and 45-72 for other theories and general information on the history of
witchcraft. For additional argumentation against Murray's theory and other
pertinent information, see: Norman Cohn, _Europe's Inner Demons_ (New
York: Basic Books, 1975), 107-20; Mircea Eliade, _Occultism, Witchcraft,
and Cultural Fashions_ (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976),
57-58, 71-73; J. Gordon Melton, _Encyclopedia,_ 142; Elliot Rose, _A Razor
for a Goat_ (Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1962), 14-21, 40-53,
56-79, 130-31, 200; Jeffrey B. Russell, _Witchcraft in the Middle Ages_
(Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1985), 36-37.
10 Doreen
Valiente, _An ABC of Witchcraft: Past and Present_ (New York: St. Martin's
Press, 1973), 184-89.
11 Melton, _Encyclopedia,_ 144; see also
Melton's _Biographical Dictionary of American Cult and Sect Leaders_ (New
York: Garland Publishing, 1986), 96-97.
12 _See_ Adler, 62-66,
81-85, 93, 560; T. M. Luhrmann, _Persuasions of the Witch's Craft: Ritual
Magic in Contemporary England_ (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1989), 42-43; Martello, 69-71; Melton, _Biographical Dictionary,_ q.v.,
"Gardner, Gerald Brosseau," 96-97; Melton's _Encyclopedia,_ 144; and his
_Encyclopedic Handbook of Cults in America_ (New York: Garland Publishing,
1986), 212; and Truzzi, 636-37. For even stronger charges, consult Francis
King, _Modern Ritual Magic: The Rise of Western Occultism,_ revised
(Dorset, Great Britain: Prism Press, 1989), 179-80.
13 Melton,
_Encyclopedia,_ 144-45.
14 _Ibid.,_ 144, 789; _Encyclopedic
Handbook,_ 212.
15 For additional information on various types of
witchcraft, _see_ Adler, 68-80, 113-30; Melton, _Encyclopedia,_ 777-801;
and Buckland, 225-28.
16 For a detailed list, consult Adler,
475-544.
17 _See_ the author's article, "The Many Faces of
Satanism," in _Forward,_ Fall 1986, 17-22. For instance, if a Jehovah's
Witness believes what the Watchtower teaches, they cannot be saved.
Likewise with a Mormon who subscribes to what Mormonism teaches.
Nonetheless, the Mormon does not believe what the Jehovah's Witness does,
and _vice versa._ The same is true with witchcraft and Satanism and/or
other forms of the occult.
18 Aidan Kelly, quoted in Adler, 106.
For further material on this point and other beliefs, see
99-135.
19 _The Covenant of the Goddess_ information packet,
Northern California Local Council Media Committee, n.d., "Basic
Philosophy."
20 _See_ Adler, 25, 29, 172.
21 _Ibid.,_ 25,
166.
22 _Ibid.,_ 24-38.
23 _Ibid.,_ 20, 112.
24
_Ibid.,_ 28, 160, 172.
25 Cunningham, 76, 117. Also _see_ 4, 62-64,
69-77.
26 _See_ Adler, e.g., 169, 173.
27 _See_, e.g.,
Buckland, 101-34, 155-74; Justine Glass, _Witchcraft, The Sixth Sense_
(California: Wilshire Book Co., 1974), 20, 94; Starhawk, _The Spiral
Dance: A Rebirth of the Ancient Religion of the Great Goddess_ (San
Francisco: Harper & Row, 1979), 37, 108-58.
28 _See_, e.g.,
Adler, 106, 153-54, 157, 163; Starhawk, 7, 18, 46-53, 110.
29 _See_
Adler, 109, 142, 166, 168-69; Buckland, 101; Cunningham, 91; Farrar,
67-68; Leek, Diary, 151, 159-60, 202-206; Starhawk, 46-54,
139-58.
30 Sybil Leek, _Diary of a Witch_ (New York: Signet Books,
1969), 144.
31 Leo Martello, 12.
32 _See_, e.g., Adler, 7-8,
102, 153-75; Cunningham, 23-24; Leek, 13-14; Truzzi, 630-32, 635-36;
Simos, 132.
33 Buckland, e.g., 101; Cunningham, 19.
34
_See_, e.g., Cunningham, 3, 17-25, 105, 109, 111; Simos, 108-38.
35
_See_, e.g., Buckland, 155, 157; Stewart Farrar, _What Witches Do: The
Modern Coven Revealed_ (London: Sphere Books Limited, 1973), 81-84,
141-43, 151-52, 156, 158-63; Leek, _The Complete Art of Witchcraft_ (New
York: Signet Books, 1973), 43, 45; Valiente, 152-58.